Internet Technology: The End Of Printed Newspaper

Internet Technology: The End Of Printed Newspaper Competition between print and online News and Information Media. According to research the growing usage of internet technology has intensified competitions and now publishers are facing more threats from online marketing leading to decline in readership of printed newspaper. Printed newspaper is finding it hard to attract young readers to replace the old ones amounting to drop in revenue on intermedia advertising market.(Richard van der wurff,2005.Gazette Vol No .1, pg 107) The internet exacerbates these threats by enabling the entry of new competitors With new online products on the internet news market. Publishers are now faced with increasing competition from foreign newspapers and other media organisation; some of these competitions offers online news for free and also use internet technology to create electronic markets and job sites that compete with the printed newspaper in the classified and job advertising markets. Printed newspaper therefore facing threats from their core business and the sales of news and sales of access to audience. .(Richard van der wurff,2005.Gazette Vol No .1., pg 107) At the same time internet technology empowers newspaper publisher to innovate their product and to target new audience by using the internet as a marketing channel to reach young potential customers, who do not read the printed newspaper, publisher can also use the internet to serve foreign customers with online electronic editions of the news that before was expensive ,they can also use the internet to strengthen relationship with existing readers by offering new services like breaking news and classified ad sites collecting readers information establishing a two way communication with readers. According to van der wurff in his contribution in the Gazette he suggested that publishers Make better use of these opportunities when they face stronger competition from online competitors. Provided they have the financial means to do so. At the beginning of the 21st century few print media has delved into online market creating their own brand like the economy and financial magazine the agriculture magazine can access online but still keep the valuable part to prints subscribers. Print newspaper publishers are now facing problems from ISPs and other information providers.(Richard van der wurff,2005.Gazette Vol No. 1, pg 108) The mediatisation of the net and internetization of Traditional Media Newspaper publishers are now required to change their business model as gate keepers of information and embrace the media logic of interractiveness, personalization, immediacy and multimedia. Their new role would be to facilitate communications between readers and between readers and journalists. Readers rather than journalists would decide what news readers would receive, and readers would become important originators of content, too. Online editions would make this content available in real-time, and text would be sexed up with moving images and sound.(Richard van der wurff,2005.Gazette Vol No. 1, pg 108) Other contribution by oà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢sullivan observes that traditional media including newspaper publisher, dominate the online news environment in his case in Ireland. Traditional media have the largest supply of online news, and in addition syndicate their content to other online providers. He also shows that websites of newspaper publishers in Ireland tend to look like transmission sites. They offer little interactivity and multimedia, and mainly provide the same news as their printed counterparts. This does not imply that editors do not see that internet, in principle, offers them opportunities to improve the print format, and to provide greater depth and diversity. Yet, online editors operate in the same political-economic environment and face at least the same problems and time constraint as their printed counterparts. It is therefore as difficult for them as for editors of printed newspapers to give minority views an equal voice. The standard in online journalism is threa tened by publishers who attempt to reduce costs by employing inexperienced journalist on low pay, and by tight deadlines. According to editors, maintain high journalistic skills is imperative-but costs money, as does offering interactivity and communication between journalists and readers.oà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢sullivan concludes that online news, when distributed for free, cannot escape the norms of broadcasting media. In Search for Newspaper Role Online The combined developments of the mediatisation of the internet and the internetization of traditional media do not resolve the competitive challenge that news publishers face. Increasing competition between old and new news media forces newspaper publishers to find an appropriate position or niche for online newspapers in the newspaper market, next to other news media and in particular next to printed newspapers. The publisher needs to differentiate their online news from the printed newspaper to prevent market cannibalization. Differentiation can be realized by emphasizing internet-specific features (e.g. interactivity), by offering different content (e.g. local community information), or both. Differentiaition, however, brings additional cost for publishers. Has argued by oà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢sullivan. Salaverria suggested whether and how newspapers have informative and critical role to play in emergency situations. He analysis how Spanish international online newspapers reported in real-time on events of the 11 September 2001.he argued that the internet has become a global information medium on its own. A multitude of people used the net directly after the event to be informed. This create technical problems(congestions, long download times), which suggests that the internet has not yet reached maturity as a technological medium. Publisher addressed the issue by trimming down the home page size. Another problem was to that the pressure to keep up with the events led online newspapers to make mistakes. More troublesome is that newspapers did not formally rectify their mistakes, but simply removed the wrong statement from the web. The debate still continues over where news rooms need to take their content. Online content has been offered free in most cases to readers for years. Will online readers be willing to pay for content in the future? For decades, there was never any doubt that printing had a future-the printing industry became the synonym for a sector with uninterrupted growth. Paper consumption and press output was the yardstick of wealth, civilization and economic power. Today, the increasing trend towards digitization and computerization of the media, coupled with the explosion of the Internet, has prompted many players in the printing industry to wonder whether print still has a future. The answer is a resounding yes. However, great changes are afoot

Controversies of Racism Essay

The subject of racism is a continual controversial issue within everyday society. It’s inevitable. Everywhere you go, you’ll come across some sort of discrimination or racism. It’s like we’re programmed to judge instantly, it’s in our human nature. Religion, age and racial discrimination literally surrounds us and we can’t do much to stop it until we change ourselves, and let’s face it that’s probably not going to happen. So the main questions I normally ask myself are: Why are we prejudiced? Is being different that bad? And are we really that different? Hitler definitely seemed to think that we were. So did America back in the 1600’s where the first of racism and black slavery began and half the world’s population in the 21st Century think so too. It was said for many years that Hitler was obsessed with racial â€Å"purity† and spread his beliefs in speeches and writings pronouncing that his race needs to remain pure in order to rule the world. What was his definition of pure? To have blue eyes, fair skin and blonde hair. Who is to say that makes you the perfect being? Absolutely no one. When Hitler and the Nazis came to power, these beliefs became the government motto and were spread publicly in posters, on the radio, in movies, in classrooms and in newspapers. After Hitler took power, Nazi teachers in school classrooms began to apply the principles of racial science. The teachers measured skull size and nose length and recorded the colour of the student’s hair and eyes to determine whether students belonged to the â€Å"true race†. This constant negative message that was being sent out influenced the younger students to continue with racism. The Nazis also began to put their ideology into practice with the support of German scientists who believed that the human race could be improved by limiting the reproduction of people considered â€Å"inferior† such as Jews, people with disabilities, gypsies, black people, and people with skin diseases, Jehovah’s Witnesses and any other flaws humans are born with. Hitler viewed the Jews not as a religious group, but as a poisonous, disgusting â€Å"race†, which â€Å"lived off† other races and weakened them. And so began the Holocaust. Hitler threw innocent Jewish people into concentration camps letting them starve to death, gassing them, burning them alive and countless other torturous acts because they weren’t what he saw to be the ‘’perfect being’’. That may have been around sixty years ago but why does genocide still happen? After the Jewish Genocide, the cold war genocide, Rwanda genocide and just recently the genocide in Darfur occurred. Slavery is a black eye on the soul of America’s history. There has never been an excuse for one human to own another. We humans as a species should always have been treated equally. Why should people own other people? Are human beings animals? How can you hate someone so much by the colour of their skin? There simply is no answer. Slavery began around the 1600’s when the first black man was used as a servant. The slavery continued on, all the way through to the 1900’s where the servants were used to clean, cook food, babysit and do the dirty work around the house while a racist extremist group called the Ku Klux Klan that believed in Hitler’s message abused them with hate crimes and acts of domestic terrorism. Black people were treated like they were the scum of the earth; they were abused, spit on, beaten and in worst case scenario, murdered. They weren’t allowed to go to the same stores, schools, diners, and churches as the white people in America which was a huge disadvantage to the African-American race. When the racial segregation happened, which was a big milestone in history, the African–Americans were allowed to have the same facilities as everyone else, much to Americas disdain. Their freedom was limited; the African-Americans resorted to sitting at the back of the bus, or were only allowed to go to certain public areas. So why it is that racism still exists? What will it take for mankind to realize that despite the colour of a person’s skin, we are all amazing, complex people, who have wonderful characteristics that should be admired and loved? But people also need to realize that some people that were born black didn’t CHOSE to be black. I mean, I’m a black girl but that doesn’t make me hate the whites and love the blacks. Both races are the same to me. I guess equality is such a new concept within everyday American society that many raw emotions still cloud their judgment. Now in the 21st Century, racism still exists and in varying forms. Not only is there racial discrimination, religion is discriminated against also. When you see a Muslim man walking down the street or a woman wearing a burka, do you cower in fear? There is this new phobia called Islamophobia where there is hatred, prejudice or fear of a Muslim person and this term came to use fter the September 11 terrorist attack. But why be scared of only Muslim’s? Everyone is capable of causing great harm to society and just recently the Norway attack occurred and this attack wasn’t done by a Muslim. It was by a Norwegian citizen that no one suspected. This man, Breivik planned the attack to annihilate multiculturalism in Norway and to preserve a Christian Europe. His political views were to conserve his culture and promote Islamoph obia, he also urged Europeans after this attack to restore the â€Å"historic crusades† against Islam as in the Middle Ages. You could say that Islamophobia is the new form of black racism as it is a practice of discriminating against Muslims by excluding them from the economic, social and public life of everyday society. The new law that was passed down in France of not being able to wear the burka is an example. French police arrested two veiled women just hours after the country’s new ban on wearing the burka in public came into force. This law is the first of its kind to be enforced in Europe, and the French police said they will be extremely cautious as there are fears of Muslim women provoking violence while the burka. The law should not push minorities around. I believe that people should be allowed to wear what they want, free of coercion. The burka is a Muslim practice and I do not see the big deal, it is not a security risk. It is believed that Islam has no values in the Western society and is an inferior and violent religious belief. On the contrary, the violent belief is this new phobia. What do you think? Far too many of us speak of equality and hope, yet secretly have hate. Most people will tell you, that they are not racist individuals. Many of these people though, are either fooling themselves, or just don’t want to make a bad reputation for themselves. Everyone is based on little more than stereotypes and stories of that what happened years ago with Hitler and the black slavery. So we need to put aside all the things that happened generations ago. It happened out of ignorance and right now what we need to be doing is unite as one race, stop the negative attitudes and beliefs that permeate around us and try to make the future brighter. Some people believe that racism is in our human nature. Do you think so?

Whatever They Told You About Essay Writing Topics for Grade 5 Is Dead Wrong...And Heres Why

Whatever They Told You About Essay Writing Topics for Grade 5 Is Dead Wrong...And Here's Why Choosing our service, you will realize that studying can be simple if you gain from the aid of competent experts. Such a project may also be called a regrade. It's effectively a means of comparing students. It's possible for you to observe grades for all your courses or one course at one time. Worksheets that can't be personalized can still supply an abundance of resource suggestions for worksheet and practice sheet design and creation. Imagine the attribute of writing you'll receive from an inexpensive essay writing service. There are a lot of fresh ideas for worksheets and lesson plans available on the internet and in homeschooling groups that there's no need to shun the usage of these viable reading tools. When you're taking the quiz try to keep in mind the answers. Start the upsell with a succinct benefit, then if it's possible to do so add something unique of what you're selling. So long as the games which you use are especially created for second graders, they could effect a huge quantity of difference for your son or daughter. Taking regular exercise is so critical, and I know its probably the very last thing on your head at the present time, simply do it any way, it will really assist you, so just do it even when you don't feel like it. Keep in mind, the ta rget is to find the kids to the point which they are employing the speed reading skill independently, naturally. You are going to be amazed at the results. Inside my experience, the older kids and grownups must put more effort into it so as to find similar outcomes, and you would probably gain from receiving a copy of SPEED READING 4 KIDS to assist you. With a simple step-by-step reading application, you too, can teach your kid to read at a young age and help your son or daughter achieve superb reading abilities. A child who's fascinated with sports can be given with sports-related worksheets. For most businesses, somewhat expert training can produce a huge difference. Assessments can be categorized in many various ways. They can also be done on pieces of legislation. Learning under these conditions enables you to relax and literally imprints the information directly into your head for effortless retrieval. Many in-service teachers aren't knowledgeable in the fundamental concepts of the English language. Although some children have a natural aptitude for math and display a lot of confidence with it during the class of frequent school instruction, others need a small assistance. Because most children with dyslexia and ADD are extremely right-brain dominant, they frequently do extremely nicely with speed reading. Then you leave the class with a fairly excellent comprehension of the topic. When you briefly read the training course material before your class, it is possible to become familiarized with the concepts. Try a few of these topics. Attempt to develop the topic fully and go over all the absolute most important questions. Steroids are rather effective at treating allergy symptoms but has to be taken daily to prove their advantage. Plus many allergy medications can have side effects, so be certain to confirm the label before buying it. Furthermore, surgery might be needed to get rid of a massive tumor. Not every treatment will do the job for everybody. You will also want to have an established reputable business. Our customer support will gladly tell you whether there are any special offers at the present time, in addition to make sure you are getting the very best service our business can deliver. Because it's done after the customer has opted to go ahead with a significant buy, the difficult portion of the sales conversation is already done. A Real Estate company unlike any other centered on the mission of constructing a network of career-minded pros who strive to cultivate their organization and their future. Top Essay Writing Topics for Grade 5 Secrets Acoustic Speakers Coming Alive Acoustic speakers are thought to be the most effective audio high quality output device which makes you believe you're listening to live music and forget your music is coming from computer. Fever is marked by means of an increase in the body temperature that exceeds the standard body temperature range. For instance, the steel industry average states an individual should be in a position to straighten 10 tons of steel an hour. Grade V Generally, you might require more than 3000 hair grafts and thus the cost would be raised accordingly! A number of bucks won't help you wind up with a good paper.

Education Is An Essential Means For A Meaningful Life

Education is an essential means to a meaningful life. It’s what separates humans from animals. Is it even possible to imagine a life without any type of education? Where would humans be if there weren’t any education to help develop one’s brain? Equally important is the type of education a person receives throughout that person’s impressionable life. Most people have experienced different types of education during a person’s life, from their parents, to their teachers, to their friends, and through self-education. Everyone remembers the quality education that was presented in a way that had him or her buy into the material being taught. Obviously the same is true for the polar opposite of that fact. Authors Paulo Freire and James Loewen have wrote great essays on the education systems they come from and experienced. They have taken a deep look at the education world and documented it for people to learn from it. Even though the two authors are from complete different walks of life, it’s interesting and valuable to notice the differences and yet have similar points of view. The common idea both authors share is the education system has major issues and can be repaired by educators. Freire wrote the â€Å" The Banking Concept of Education† which pointed out that educators are above students, which are viewed as completely stupid and uneducated. He wrote, â€Å"Education thus becomes an act of depositing, in which the students are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor.Show MoreRelatedEssay on Parental Involvement in Education539 Words   |  3 Pages Parental involvement in education is a vital essential for creating a cooperative environment for the st udent to thrive and succeed in. When a student knows that he or she is receiving support both inside and outside the school, the chances of that child becoming responsible for and active in their education are more likely. I know that there can be difficulties including parents for many reasons. Such parents may be too busy, uninterested or just feel helpless. However, as an educator, I will stillRead MorePhilosophy Statement on Family Partnerships980 Words   |  4 Pagesis crucial force in children’s development, learning, and success at school and in life. Parent involvement means the participation of parents in regular, two-way, and meaningful communication involving student academic learning and other school activities including ensuring that parents play an integral role in assisting their child’s learning; parents are encouraged to be actively involved in their child’s education at school; and parent involvement and communication is crucial to a classroo m. (ModuleRead MoreMy Reflection On My Philosophy1085 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction â€Å"A hundred years from now, it will not matter what kind of car I drove, what kind of house I lived in, or how much money I had in the bank†¦ but the world may be a better place because I made a difference in the life of a child.† This quote by Forest Witcraft truly encompasses the reason I want to teach. I hope to have an impact on my future students, and this part of my teaching philosophy can be tied into my practicum experience. As a volunteer in a kindergarten classroom at St. JohnRead MoreA Good Life Essay906 Words   |  4 Pagesdefine the common good and what constitutes a good life. While the definition of what is a good life can vary from person to person, whether that mean academic achievement, financial success, or a certain social status; for me, a good life is a life driven through goals and purpose. A life in which you set goals and strive to reach them despite the physical, mental, or emotional obstacles that can get in your way. In Viktor Frankl’s What is a Good Life? Frankl states that, â€Å"Everything can be taken fromRead MoreImportance Of Liberal Arts Education1346 Words   |  6 Pages Before beginning my college journey, I had considered what I expected out of a liberal arts education. My number one reason for attending Central was for their education program. My goal for the future, however shallowly thought out it may have been, was to be a good teacher, and make a difference in children’s lives. Because of Central’s Teacher Academy program, their high standards, and excellent reputation in the field, I knew this was the place that would help me attain those goals. HoweverRead MoreThe First Few Years Of Young Children’S Lives Are Very1094 Words   |  5 Pagesdevelopment and has a genuine desire to help them learn, grow and succeed in their education. 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This means that inferential statistics would be an estimate because  the data would be  estimated from sample data  rather than using  specific data  whereas descriptive statistics would be more accurate. An example of descriptive statistics would be trying to findRead More John Dewey Essay1595 Words   |  7 Pages John Dewey was one of the greatest minds in history. A philosopher, his concern was democracy and its ideals. A thinker about the problems in education. A prominent voice in America, commanding the admiration of those who agreed with his views, and respect for his mind even from those who did not. The man: John Dewey, an American philosopher. Dewey’s pedagogy was one with three distinctive traits: it was democratic in that it called for pluralism. It was a follower of the scientific method in that

Nature of the Mind Essay - 810 Words

William Blake, a poet that strongly believed in the power of mind, once wrote, if we see with imagination, we see all things in the infinite. The Romantic poets use their imagination when gazing at nature, and therefore see and feel the infinite through their poetry. William Wordsworth expresses the serene beauty that nature possesses and its calming effects on the mind. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, one of the poetic geniuses of the age, uses nature and his imagination to create surreal atmospheres. Another Romantic poet, by the name of Percy Bysshe Shelley, shows great longing for the freedom that nature possesses and the freeing effect it has on him. These poets of the Romantic period look at nature from a higher consciousness†¦show more content†¦He expresses the minds ability to take a beautiful scene and create a calm and content feeling throughout his thoughts. Samuel Taylor Coleridge uses nature as a catalyst to search deeper into his mind and discover the surreal creativity of his own imagination. This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison depicts an out-of-body vision that encompasses a breathtaking vista of green mountains and purple flowers from the eyes of an imaginer. Gazing at it with swimming sense, the picture becomes less gross than bodily, causing the swirling colors to form something only found in the divine. However surreal this picture is, nothing can compare to Cloleridges vision in Kubla Khan. In this poem he uses natures creations to depict unnatural scenes. In caverns measureless to man, Kubla Khan wants to build a sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice. Such a place is only real in the imagination and in the written word, which is why this poem seems so tangible to the eye. He comes across these imaginary visions while meandering with a mazy motion through wood and dale, where these thoughts come alive. It explains through al literation how walking through wooded paths, accompanied only by ones mind, one comes upon new feelings and thoughts that are only palpable in that wood. Nature inspires Samuel Coleridge to exorcise his minds eye and create a heavenly atmosphere. Percy Bysshe Shelley looks up toShow MoreRelatedHuman Nature And The Mind974 Words   |  4 PagesHuman Nature and The Mind Human nature and the mind have been studied for ages. As humans, we tend to think, feel, and act in certain ways that are often elucidated by nature and evolution. In fields such as Psychology, Philosophy, and Science, human nature and the mind have been extensively studied to develop theories about why humans act, think, and feel that way that we do. It is believed by some that humans are born a certain way by nature. There are three ways that people tend to believe humansRead MoreThe Nature Of The Human Mind1415 Words   |  6 Pages The Cogito argument, â€Å"I think, therefore I am† was a statement made by Descartes and is valid. The Second Meditation, â€Å"The nature of the human mind, and how it is better known than the body† the meditator is determined in his decision to search for uncertainty and to dispose anything that is false and contains the slightest doubt. The meditator supposes that what he sees does not exist, his memory is defective. He claims that , â€Å"†¦ he has no sense, no body, and movements and places are mistaken ideasRead MoreThe Nature Of The Human Mind878 Words   |  4 Pagesmeditation is titled, Concerning the Nature of the Human Mind: That it is Better Known than the Body. In his second meditation, Descartes argues that the human mind exists merely by itself without any physical representation in the world. This argument lead to many of his later meditations and allowed him to really build the framework for Western Philosophy. The cogent argument is arguably the most crucial argument, which lead us to our philosophy of the mind. In some respect, Descartes is on theRead MoreDivided Minds and the Nature of Persons682 Words   |  3 PagesReflective Essay: Divided Minds and the Nature of Persons Derek Parfit believes that split-brain cases support the Bundle Theory because split brain cases appear to demonstrate two levels of consciousness, rather than suggesting that consciousness is destroyed in people whose sub-dominant hemispheres are destroyed. The suggestion that there are multiple levels of consciousness aligns with Parfits understanding of Bundle Theory, although his explanation of Bundle Theory does not limit itselfRead MoreUnderstanding The Nature Of The Human Mind Essay1115 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction The human brain is a very complicated part of the human anatomy. Kanwisher states in an inaugural article, â€Å"Understanding the nature of the human mind is arguably the greatest intellectual quest of all time. It is also one of the most challenging, requiring the combined insights not only of psychologists, computer scientists, and neuroscientists but of thinkers in nearly every intellectual pursuit, from biology and mathematics to art and anthropology† (2010). The impacts occur whenRead MoreThe Nature Of Mind By David Armstrong Essay1772 Words   |  8 PagesIn David Armstrong’s thought-provoking work titled, The Nature of Mind, he explains that the most convincing way to make sense of the mind-body problem is to approach it in a materialistic way. Specifically, Armstrong shows that the science of physico-chemical processes of the brain is the best way to explain the nature of our mind. He goes on to explain traditional and dispositional behaviorism, and states his own materialistic take on behaviorism. His arguments throughout his paper are very logicalRead MoreThe Nature of the Human Mind and the Human Body1095 Words   |  4 PagesDescartes talks about the nature of the human mind, and how the mind relates to the human body. With his famous declaration, I am, I exist, Descartes claims that â€Å"I† am â€Å"a thinking thing†, and therefore â€Å"I† exist (17-18). He also argues that the mind is better known than the body. In the Sixth Meditation, he further argues that there must be a clear distinction between mind and body. However, there is surely some connection between these two. In The Treatise on Human Nature, Aquinas argues that theRead MoreAnalyzing Armstrongs Nature of Mind Essay737 Words   |  3 PagesAnalyzing Armstrong’s â€Å"The Nature of Mind† In David M. Armstrong’s â€Å"The Nature of Mind†, Armstrong praises the field of science and seeks to put the concept of mind into terms that agree with science’s definition of minds. His interest is in the physico-chemical, materialist view of man. Armstrong considers science to be the authority over other disciplines because of its reliability and result in consensus over disputed questions. Armstrong’s main argument is as follows: P1: Mental statesRead More Hamlet - The Imbalance of the Idealistic Mind and Human Nature1334 Words   |  6 Pages- The Imbalance of the Idealistic Mind and Human Nature  Ã‚   It is often heard: Nobody is Perfect. This phrase is often used as a rationalization of foolish human mistakes that could have been prevented.   However, this statement has a much more profound significance. It contains an important lesson that guides or rather should guide people through life.   By admitting that nobody is perfect, the individual demonstrates a deeper understanding of the human nature and inner self. This knowledge isRead MoreEssay on HUMAN BEINGS AND NATURE DURING THE REVOLUTION OF THE MIND3395 Words   |  14 PagesHUMAN BEINGS AND NATURE DURING THE REVOLUTION OF THE MIND Enlightenment is mans release from his self-incurred tutelage. Tutelage is mans inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another. Self-incurred is this tutelage when its cause lies not in lack of reason but in lack of resolution and courage to use it without direction from another. Dare to Know! Have courage to use your own reason!- that is the motto of enlightenment. -Immanuel Kant, 1784 (1) From the

Irrationalism Free Essays

string(66) " in western culture for the first time in the nineteenth century\." TABLE OF CONTENTS: 1: Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 2: What is Irrationalism?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. We will write a custom essay sample on Irrationalism or any similar topic only for you Order Now . 2 3: Origins of Irrationalism†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2 3. 1: The Limits of Rationalism†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2 3. 2: The Religious Issue†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 4: Historical Synopsis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 4. 1: Ancient Greek Era†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 4. 2: Medieval Mysticism†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 4. 3: Modern Era†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4. 4: The Historical Culmination of Irrationalism†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 4. 5: The Twentieth Century†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 5: Critical Evaluation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 5. 1: Irrational vs. non-rational†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 7 6: Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 7: References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 1. 0: INTRODUCTION: The term irrationalism, which depicts a 19th and early 20th century philosophical movement, is a trend that claims to enrich or broaden human apprehension of life beyond the horizon of reason. This movement, as shall be demonstrated in this work, arose as a sort of reaction against the traditional over bloating of the capacities of human reason. Thus, it sought to incorporate other aspects of human life such emotions, will, passion and even faith. Accordingly, such movements like voluntarism, mysticism or religion, romanticism et al, find their place within this trend. But it must be noted at once that this movement does not seek to negate or refute the capacities of human reason. Instead it seeks to postulate that with rationality alone, human beings cannot explore certain areas of life which are in themselves unavoidable experiential data of human life. It is to delineate elaborately on the tenets of this trend that this work is poised to do. To achieve this, we have opted to render this exposition in accordance with the above given outline. 2. 0: WHAT IS IRRATIONALISM? Irrationalism refers to â€Å"any movement of thought that emphasizes the non-rational or irrational element of reality over and above the rational† . More than a school of thought, irrationalism is a multi-faceted reaction against the dominance of rationalism. As such, it played a significant role in western culture towards the end of the nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century. Irrationalism need not be opposed to reason. It can consist of a simple awareness that the rational aspect of things tends to be overemphasized and that this needs to be compensated by an emphasis on intuition, feeling, emotions, and the subconscious, etc . 3. 0: ORIGINS OF IRRATIONALISM: There are at least two main sources of irrationalism, viz: ?The Limits of Rationalism: First, we see that even the most consistently rationalist approach of the world will yield, in the end, some ultimate notions that can no longer be grasped or expressed through rational language. Such include questions of truth, goodness, beauty, and so on). This clearly appears in ancient Greek philosophy. In the eighteenth century Enlightenment, a somewhat superficial confidence in reason was often maintained, and the question about ultimate realities was thus avoided. Still, Voltaire, a typical representative of the â€Å"Lumieres,† was very skeptical about the natural lights of human reason and the ability to find definitive answers. Nineteenth century Positivism, finally, appeared as the culmination of human confidence in reason based on scientific advances. The positivists’ belief that scientific reason would make all other approaches obsolete, however, was soon largely rejected as a naive illusion. Irrationalism has therefore acted as a recurrent challenge to the belief that analytical or deductive reasoning was the alpha and omega of human mental activity . The Religious Issue: A second challenge to the preponderance of reason has come from the religious side. All the world’s religious traditions, based on immediate experience as much as revelation, have an acute awareness that the human predicament is at odds with the very ideal of perfection and happiness. In Christian thought, there is the dual notion of God’s j udgment and his grace, a position best expressed by the apostle Paul and revived most famously by the Reformers, such as Martin Luther King Jnr. nd Jean Calvin. The very notion of sin in a world created by an omnipotent and good God seems contradictory to reason. This dissonance is heightened by such paradoxical biblical formulations like, â€Å"those who want to live will die and those who want to die will live† and â€Å"the first shall be the last. † Thus, in the religious context, irrationalism takes on the nature of paradox and mystery. It is not possible for unaided human reason to fully grasp the meaning of the human condition. It has to be accepted that two basic facts (God and evil) coexists in a way that cannot be rationally explained. Only faith or spiritual intuition can somehow comprehend what is meaningless for reason alone. This position maintains a strong presence, even where attempts at offering rational explanations abound. In various different contexts, other world religions have approached the same basic issue and offered a response that invariably amounted to a rejection of rationalism . In the religious world of the Far East (notably India and China), the response has often been sought in higher wisdom involving spiritual perception and allowing the believer to see how seemingly contradictory notions can harmonize on a higher plane. There is also a general insistence on the need to find the right attitude in approaching everyday life and its ultimate questions. Finally, in Zen Buddhism, enlightenment through direct experience, by which one is jolted out of one’s habitual condition, is seen as the answer. Thus, religion’s response to the limits of reason tends to have a strong emotional, experiential, and voluntary component. 4. 0: HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: The history of western philosophy has been overwhelmingly dominated by the notion that reason and intellect determine the value of thought, culminating in eighteenth century rationalism, nineteenth century positivism, and twentieth century logical positivism . Irrationalism has thus mostly been a secondary reaction defended by a few minor figures, an element embedded in the thought of otherwise rational thinkers, or an underlying and largely hidden element. A closer look, however, reveals the importance of non-rational issues and the emotional factor, notably in fields like ethics, aesthetics, education, axiology, and even such a bulwark of rationalism as epistemology. Irrationalism became a major force in western culture for the first time in the nineteenth century. You read "Irrationalism" in category "Essay examples" Its impact reached far beyond philosophy and the academia and was felt in the whole of society, including the political sphere, from the Romantic period to World War II, and beyond. ?Ancient Greek Era: Ancient Greek philosophy is generally recognized as the paragon of rational thinking. Its giants, Plato and Aristotle, viewed the rational mind as the essence of human identity. For Plato in particular, the realm of emotions linked to physical existence represented the lower counterpart to the eternal beauty and goodness of immaterial, rational souls. But his philosophy in fact culminates in a strongly mystical form of idealism. The immortality of the soul, eternal truth and beauty in particular, are introduced as the result of a higher insight, not of deductive or analytical thought. Such a trend continued in Neo-Platonism. Plato and his mentor Socrates are also related to the Mystery religions of ancient Greece which are often referred to in mythical form in the Platonic dialogues . The Eleusian Mysteries and the Delphic Sibyl are two examples of what Nietzsche would later call the â€Å"Dionysian element of exuberance and spiritual drunkenness† in Greek culture—an element that would combine with the plastic and formal element of light, the Apollonian element, to produce the masterpieces of Greek culture. In earlier Greek philosophy, that element could already be found in the works of Empedocles and Pythagoras. It was very influential in Greek tragedy and poetry. The cryptic aphorisms of Heraclitus, another pre-Socratic philosopher, also stand in stark contrast to the smooth flow of rational discourse, though his dialectic does not directly advocate irrationalism . Finally, the notion of destiny of fate arbitrarily willed by the gods of the Olymp constitutes an endorsement of irrationalism. Within such notions, things don’t make sense. They just have to be accepted. ?Medieval Mysticism: In medieval thought, irrationalism appears in the form of mysticism and voluntarism. Even Thomas Aquinas, probably the most rationally oriented of the middle age theologians, had a mystical experience towards the end of his life in which it appeared to him that all he had written was like â€Å"straw† . Mystically oriented writers like Meister Eckhart and Jakob Bohme saw knowledge of God as limited to negative theology. For the via negativa, the only positive statements that could be made about God were those negating ossible limitations of his Being (God is not finite, etc. ). The whole history of medieval thought – which reflected Christianity, Judaism and Muslim—was about defining the boundaries of the rational philosophical approach in its confrontation with faith, i. e. an approach that transcends human reason. ?Modern Era: Among the great metaphysicians of the seventeenth century such as Descartes, Leibniz , inter alia, French Catholic thinker Blaise Pascal represents an illustrious exception. The highly intellectually gifted mathematician came as an early precursor of Christian existentialism and famously stated that the â€Å"heart has its reasons that are unknown to reason† . Pascal also made the equally famous distinction between the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and the â€Å"God of the philosophers,† i. e. , understanding through revelation and understanding through reason . Pascal’s position somehow forms a continuation of the Augustinian tradition defended by Duns Scotus and its volutaristic emphasis on the will to believe, rather than rational conviction. The Historical Culmination of Irrationalism: The real breakthrough of irrationalism came with the backlash against the rationalism of the Enlightenment and the subsequent wave of Positivism. At the end of the eighteenth century, Immanuel Kant had concluded that reason cannot give certain and ultimate knowledge about reality, especially not about God and the transcendent. In this, he wanted to make place for faith, which he also saw as a form of reason. The question over what counts as reason and what does not would thus later become an important one. For many, â€Å"anything not related to scientific knowledge of the empirically known universe does not qualify as reason† . For others, especially in the era of Romanticism, â€Å"the mind’s innate ability to recognize the reality of the Ultimate represents the highest peak of reason† . At this point, one has a convergence between rationalism and irrationalism, with mostly a difference of terminology. Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Jakob Friedrich Fries, and Johann Georg Hamann are noted representatives of that period . The German Idealists are another example of thought systems developed with great emphasis on rational thought, but culminating in often highly irrational speculation. This is true even of Hegel, and his panlogism, and much more so Schelling, especially in his later, mystical phase . With Arthur Schopenhauer, irrationalism is embraced fully in the form of voluntarism . A blind will is presented as the foundation of existence, while the world of rational representations only forms the deceptive surface of things (in ways similar to Indian thought). Friedrich Nietzsche was equally skeptical of the west’s rational tradition and its shallow ethical codes, stressing such notions as the will to power and the playfulness of a child . In the Christian tradition, Soren Kierkegaard was strongly critical of the rational constructions of Hegel and proposed the â€Å"leap of faith† of the existentialist attitude as an alternative. His overall orientation, usually without the Christian connotation, would be maintained in the thought of twentieth century existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre. For Henri Bergson, whose intuitivism was based on the notion of elan vital (vital thrust), rational thought was equally ill-equipped to grasp the essence of things. Finally, even a strongly intellectual philosophy like Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology is based on intuition as an element that comes prior to rational analysis in the perception of reality. The above list of names, to which many others could be added, exemplifies what Paul Tillich had in mind when he referred to the strong irrational undercurrent in western thought. Philosophical irrationalism would expand into many other areas of culture, including history (as shown in the works of Wilhelm Dilthey and Oswald Spengler) and, most famously in psychoanalysis (as shown in the works of Sigmund Freud, Carl-Gustav Jung). The latter’s implication is that irrational unconscious forces are really shaping human life. William James would espouse another form of non-rational emphasis in explaining the workings of the mind and that is Pragmatism, which argues that positions are essentially justified when they work. The Twentieth Century: The clash between rationalism and irrationalism would continue throughout the twentieth century, with rationalism being reinforced by the stunning development of science and irrationalism being bolstered by the obvious senselessness of many world events. A possible point of convergence has been contemporary science’s recognition of the inadequacy of the traditional mechanistic worldview and its advocacy of a muc h greater sophistication in attempts to grasp the nuances of its key notions. This has led many to abandon scientific reductionism and its denial of the unfathomable realm of the spirit. In the philosophical world, postmodernism has seen a wholesale rejection of all hitherto accepted certainties. Thus, there is paradox of a contemporary world where humankind has a firmer grasp and control over natural phenomena than ever, but one in which, at the same time, the rational nature of that world has been increasingly challenged in ontology and epistemology as well as in ethics (e. g. Nietzsche and more recently Michel Foucault and their refusal to accept given norms) . 5. 0: CRITICAL EVALUATION: From the foregoing, it is clear that much of what passes for irrationalism, in fact, does not challenge the validity of reason, but rather opens the possibilities of other realms of investigation that had been previously ignored by the rationalist tradition. This comes together with a rebellion against the rationalization of a reality that is perceived as absurd or ethical rules that are perceived to be abusive in their pretension to be rationally grounded. Nevertheless, the thrust of our evaluation herein shall focus on distinguishing between two terms that may seem compounded. This shall enable us with the ability to conclude whether the philosophers of this trend were either irrational or non-rational. ?Irrational vs. Non-rational: The difference between non-rational and irrational is not as easy to define as it may appear. German authors, like the philosopher of religion Rudolf Otto, often use the equivalent of the English â€Å"irrational,† but translators of their writings prefer to use â€Å"non-rational† to avoid giving the impression of an anti-rational bias. Indeed, in a context such as Otto’s, irrational is meant to convey the meaning of something that eludes the grasp of reason, a depth dimension of the human psyche that cannot be appropriately expressed in rational language. It does not mean that the author rejects the rational discourse altogether. In the case of Otto, the contrary is the case. This author strongly stresses the need for academic discourse to proceed according to strict rational rules and to avoid the excesses of romantic enthusiasm. Otto merely wants to show that reason is not alone and that once it has spoken, something remains that can nly be grasped intuitively and expressed in symbols. Similarly, today’s sociology of religion generally understands myths as a genuine and irreplaceable component of the human discourse, one that can express certain realities better than straight scientific talk and even reach where that talk cannot go. There is no negative connotation attached to myth under these circu mstances. 6. 0: CONCLUSION: In the end, the understanding of irrationalism in the sense of non-rational or irrational is a matter of worldview. For those who consider that the universe and if applicable, the Supreme Being, form a whole that is non-contradictory and where intellect, emotion, and will coexist harmoniously as different aspects of that reality, non-rational will have to be chosen as the proper expression. In that perspective, irrational will have to be reserved for the cases of opinions or behavior that fails to abide by the accepted rules of reason—not to describe that which transcends the realm of reason. In the main, few will defend a strong version of the opposite position that contradiction lies at the heart of everything. Such a position would make any discourse impossible, including that of those who hold this position. But various thinkers have emphasized the paradoxical nature of reality. In such a view, reality may not be fully contradictory, but it presents essential features that will always stand in paradoxical position to each other. Such is in general, the position of dialectical philosophy. Other strong forms of irrationalism are those which argue a fundamentally absurd nature of the world or the complete irrelevance of the rational discourse. Be these as they may, we rest our case in the contention that irrationalism stands at par with rationalism with only a slight difference in their respective emphasis. REFERENCES: ?Benne, Kenneth D, Contemporary Irrationalism and the Idea of Rationality, In: Studies in Philosophy and Education. Volume 6, Number 4 / December, 1969 ? Bergson, Henri, Creative Evolution. Dover Publications, 1998, ISBN 978-0486400365 ? Dewolf, L. H, Religious Revolt Against Reason, Greenwood Publishing, ISBN 978-0837100616 ? Kierkegaard, Soren, Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Princeton University Press, 1941. ISBN 978-0691019604 ? Kierkegaard, Soren, and Howard Vincent. Philosophical Fragments, Princeton University Press, 1962. ISBN 978-0691019550 ? Nietzsche, Friedrich, Beyond Good and Evil. Digireads. com, 2005, ISBN 978-1420922509 ? Nietzsche, Friedrich, and Walter Kaufmann, On the Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo, Vintage, 1989. ISBN 978-0679724629 ? Pascal, Blaise, Pensees, LGF Livre de Poche, 2000, ISBN 978-2253160694 ? Plato, The Symposium, Penguin Classics, 2003, ISBN 978-0140449273 ? Schopenhauer, Arthur, â€Å"Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung†, 1818/1819, vol. 2: 1844 (The World as Will and Representation, sometimes also known in English as The World as Will and Idea), Dover Publications, 1966. ISBN 978-0486217628. ?Stumpf, Samuel E, â€Å"Philosophy: History and Problems†, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. , 1221, Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY, 10020, ISBN 0-07-240635-6, Sixth Edition, 2003. OTHER SOURCES: ?Encyclopedia Britannica. com. ?Guide to Philosophy on the Internet. ?Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ?The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. How to cite Irrationalism, Essay examples

Organizational Structure And Culture - Comparison And Contrast

Question: Understand the relationship between organisational structure and culture. Understand different approaches to management and leadership. Understand ways of using motivational theories in organisations. Understand mechanisms for developing effective teamwork in organisations. Answer: Introduction The organization structure depends on the viewpoint of the head of the organization and its employees manifest the culture of the organization. The owner of the business maintains the different approach to management and leadership as it is something that cannot be changed with the passing time (Saenz et al. 2015). The ways of using motivational theories in an organization should be implemented as it fosters the growth of the company. The mechanism for developing effective teamwork in the organization helps the employees to work efficiently. This particular study firmly focuses on analyzing the relationship between various organization structure and culture in terms of starting new organization in business industry. This study also executes different approaches of management and leadership style as well as strategies. Moreover, this study also describes the motivational theories that help in motivating employees and developing teamwork within the organizational workplace. Understanding the Relationship between Organizational Structure and Culture Comparison and Contrast of Different Organizational Cultures and Structures Comparison and Contrast of Different Organizational Structures In terms of developing new organization several organizational structure must be considered such as Technology: Harper (2015) opined that technology is the combination of knowledge resources and techniques that helps in creating products or services of the firm. The key elements included in the structure are departmentalization (on what points the grouping of jobs will be done), work specialization (activities subdivided into separate jobs), decentralization and centralization (source of making decision authority), formalization (it is the degree of making regulations and rules to assist employees and managers). Strategy: This allows the organization in positioning a competitive environment and shaping the design of the firm. Moreover, it also helps in developing the organizational uniqueness regarding selling. Environment: In terms of running successful business, need to receive inputs from the environment in the place of business operation and sell their outputs within the environment. Scale: majority of the larger organizations earn benefits through building economies of scale by involving greater complexity that sophisticated organizational designs. Apart from that, there are several merits of organizational structures that is showing in the table Functional Structure Product Structure Geographic Structure Vertical Specialization Deliver clear services with the aligned skills and training of individuals Easily explain to customers, employees, suppliers, through problem that are recognized Lead for the growth of sectional interests with the hierarchy and reinforcement People are grouped based on expertise for the large numbers of products or services Support expansion of skills and rapid diversion Incentive and reward structure based on successful achievements of individual product lines Helps in effective decision making for large amount of supply chain methods Provide decentralized approach Help in maintaining personal relationship Provide clear outline of separation of authority and activities Outline the hierarchical ranking Comparison and Contrast of Different Organizational Culture The British management writer, (Charles Handy), classified organizational culture by the power of individuals roles and functions within an organization. The identification is of four types of corporate culture Zeus, Apollo, Athens and Dionysius and named them after the ancient Greek gods (Russo et al. 2013). In terms of developing new business, eight cultural characteristic have to maintain Simplicity according to the possibility Core Competency Bias for action Entrepreneurship and Autonomy Displaying Corporate Value (Publishing Annual Report) Loose tight properties People Productivity (Providing Rewards) Staying close to customer Apart from that, there are several core corporate cultural models in the business industry such as Figure 1: Models of Organizational Culture (Source: French and Rayner 2008, pp- 209) Relationship between culture and an organization structure The link through an organization's culture and structure can impact the appraisal of the business in many ways. The structures, as well as culture, are reciprocal of each other and functions parallel (Cummings and Worley 2014). The culture cannot be imposed people will have to follow it or build it with their will on anyone. Figure 2: Relationship between Organizational Structure and Culture (Source: Pless, Maak and Waldman 2012, pp- 63) The boundary between one organization and other is defines by different culture, improves the stability of the organization and conveys a sense of knowingness for its members. Due to all the bounds and limitations, which affect the employee or an individual the performance of the business somehow, deflects in some form or other. Hence, for a successful business, emphasis should be kept in the culture of the organization and regular checks should be done to maintain the code of conduct of every employee. Description of Factors that influence individual behaviors at work The reasons, which influence behavior of individuals at work, are organization structure, organization culture, personality, perception, dedication, incentives and working conditions (Robbins et al. 2013). If all these factors are followed appropriately by every individual in the organization, then the business will benefit and will gain profits whereas will keep every individual happy with the working conditions. The employees, as well as the chief of the organization, maintain the organization culture. Factors Details Attention Way of learning information helps in reducing demand of attention Memory Things and method impose information access Logical Reasoning Decision making severe implications Perception Neglecting misunderstand will help in influencing people at workplace Table 1: Factors that influence individuals at work (Source: Cummings and Worley 2014, pp-512) The perception should be made by every individual but for the betterment of the organization and in productive manner and grapevine should not be encouraged (Cichocki and Irwin 2014). The incentive is a way to make employees work with efficiency and for extra hours to complete the task. The working condition of any organization depends on its structure and the size of the business. Understanding different approaches to management and leadership Comparison of the Effectiveness of different leadership styles in different organizations The leadership skill is a valid attribute in the management of organizations. There is no one leadership style, which can be implemented in every situation. The leadership style has to be applied according to the positions in business (Swaen et al. 2013). The styles of leadership differ and there are few styles of leadership like Country Club leadership in which production is low, but people are high, produce or perish leadership in it the production is high and people is low, impoverished leadership in which both production and people are low. Autocratic Style: This type of leaders makes the decision without taking any reference from others. The effectiveness of country club leadership is that it will always keep the employees happy as production is low in it and there is not too much work. In addition, this type of leaders also creates alienation and de-motivation. However, Bardhan, Krishnan and Lin (2013) opined that autocratic leadership style is more valuable where decision need to be made quickly and decisively. Democratic Leadership Style: The impoverished leadership is one in which production is low so there is not too much work to do that is why people is also low. In the middle-of-the-road leadership the production is medium hence the people are also medium. Lastly, the team leadership is one in which production is high as well as people is also high. Autocratic Style Democratic Style Delegative Style (Laissez-Faire) Make decision without reference Valuable in quick decision making Alienation and de-motivate to staff Encourage decision making Emphasized the organization Delay in decision making Make creative ideas Make coordination Realise effective team work Table 2: Comparison of Different Leadership styles (Source: Lazaroiu 2015) Delegative Leadership style (Laissez-Faire): The key quote of this style is the Let it be. These types of leaders are responsible for all shared information to all. Where creative ideas are required, this type of leads are played crucial role. In the produce or perish leadership the production is high so it will not keep the people much happy because of the workload. Explanation of Organizational Theory that underpins Practice of management Scientific Management: According to Taylor (2004), managers within the organization need to be trained. Therefore, this theory will help the organization in providing appropriate training to their higher-level management staffs. The theory, which is associated with organization, is necessary to practice as it fosters the behavior and nature of an organization, which helps in the practice of management. If an organization maintains its principles for behavior and nature, then the employees have a good etiquette. Classical Management Theories: The management function includes roles like planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling (Haslam et al. 2014). If correct organization theories are practiced, then the management can be practiced properly. Webers Theory of Bureaucracy: The nature of the organization has to be understood to practice the management properly by the Directorate. The objective of the organization is to make the management understand the nature and behavior of the organization. The management should be taught or given classes for practicing organizational behavior. Faylors Principe of Management: The proper practice of management can only be conducted if the organizational behavior, nature of the organization can be well understood by the Directorate. If you are interested in changing your leadership style and organizational theory, then a meeting should be conducted for us to discuss further. Therefore, the major principles are Unity of Command Organizational Hierarchy Division of Labor Esprit de corps Discipline Evaluation of Different approaches of management by different organizations Bureaucratic Approach: The bureaucratic approach is followed by most of the organizations as it is not bound to use any particular approach rather it functions based on the environment of the organization and hence it is used the most (Pless et al. 2012). Scientific Approach: The scientific management is of not much use as it is quite complex and most organizations does not favor it. Time Study Separation Planning Scientific recruitment Training Analysis of Job Financial Initiatives Standardization Table 3: Different approaches of management Source: (Taylor, 2014) Administrative Approach: There are some principles in administrative approach such as discipline at work, remuneration, equity, initiatives, scalar chain, unity of direction. Ways of using motivational theories in organization and its understandings Discussion of the impact of different leadership style on motivational in organization Autocratic Leadership: The effects of motivation that different leadership styles have cannot be measured because it is not seen rather it is felt. The motivation a person can get depends on the situations and circumstances as it is something which needs to be stimulated, impelled, moved and induced by an individual (Pinder 2014). The motivation depends on what motivates a person, and it differentiates from one person to another. Democratic Leadership: The motivation is defined as a reason to put forth your best forward. The motivation depends on a person's needs, and it ceases with the fulfillment of need and motivates behavior. The needs of individuals are different from persons to persons and are motivated by different things. Laissez-Faire Leadership: The leadership styles are different and motivate person differently. The motivation is vital for productivity, increased performance, and achievements (Strom et al. 2014). The motivation has different effects on each, as not all persons get motivate by same needs. The motives of making work done in exchange for reward works for a short term as it is not fixed. In the long run, to sustain human motivation, there are many intangible factors which not necessarily depend on rewards. Comparison of different motivational theories within the workplace The various theories of motivation, which can be discriminated, based on its invention can be implemented in workplace. The types of motivational theories are Abraham Maslow The Hierarchy of Needs theory, Douglas McGregor Theory X / Theory Y and Herzberg Motivator-Hygiene Theory, Vroom and Expectancy theories, Maccoby, McCrae, and Costa personality dimensions, etc. (Miner 2015).These are the three motivational theories which are practiced the most by most of the organizations. Douglas McGregor Theory X / Theory Y: It is made on the basics that intrinsic motivation is better than extrinsic motivation. It means to get great results people should be interested in doing work. The theory x / theory y states if it is considered that in theory x it is assumed that most of the worker is lazy, will do very little work possible and dislikes work. The theory y states that assumption should be made if average worker is not lazy, the job itself will decide if the worker likes the job and wants to do a good job (Munro et al. 2014). The Herzberg employee motivator-hygiene theory: It sates the relationship between hygiene needs, job satisfaction and motivator needs. It implies that when the motivator needs are done then workers will be satisfied; when hygiene needs are done workers will not be dissatisfied. Motivator Factors Hygiene Factors Work itself Responsibility Promotion Achievement Benefits and pay Company policy and administration Relationship with co-workers Job security Abraham Maslow The Hierarchy of Needs theory: Options Details Self Actualization This theory allows the leaders in organizational aspect to motivate their employees by providing opportunities of judgment. Esteem Providing rewards for achievement, decrease the dominance, build self respect, etc Social Build eco-friendly environment within the workplace. Create group of individuals Safety Provide self protection from elements such as health act. Physiological Employee feel free during the working hour Usefulness of a motivational theory for managers and its evaluation The theory is useful for managers as it improves performance appraisal of employees. In the realm of management, motivation is an important function as it is vital for productivity, achievement and increased performance (Barrick et al. 2013). The needs of motivation differ from one individual to another (Lazaroiu 2015). Process of motivation Figure 3: Process of motivation (Source: Ben-Ner 2013, pp- 91) Treat staff well: The staff deserves a proper treatment. Think like a winner: The winner qualities should be implemented in business. Recognize the differences: The difference between motivations should be understood. Set realistic goals: The goals set should be real and should be achieved. Mechanisms for developing effective teamwork in organizations and its understandings Nature of groups and groups behavior within organizations The term group is used for types of people who think themselves to be a group. There are certain distinctive attributes in groups, which is not present in a crowd (Salas et al. 2015). The nature of groups can be identified if it has a certain sense of identity, loyalty towards the group, purpose of the group and leadership of the group. Nature of groups: There are different types of group formation in an organization to achieve its specific results. There are three types of views in a group the normative view which shows how to organize a group and carry out activities, the second is group dynamics which has a set of roles like brainstorming, role play and the third is group dynamics from the viewpoint of internal organization members (Russo et al. 2013). Dynamics of group formation: The formation of group depends on the type of groups. The official group is constructed to cater specific goals. The management builds it for a particular purpose, and they are task oriented. Formal group: In the formal group, the management creates a group based on the work type and for particular goal (Turner 2014). It is constructed for the appropriate coordination of work. Individuals depending on their likings and shared interests create the informal group. Informal group: The informal groups include colleagues who eat lunch together, people in a network who get together to exchange information and does not allow others to join them. The purpose of an informal group is not concerned with any task rather; it is dependent on an individual and personal satisfaction. The five stage model: It shows the forming of group according to the model. Forming: It is the initial stage of group development. Storming: In this disagreement among membership may arise. Norming: In it the members develop close relationship. Performing: It is the stage where members perform. Adjourning: It is the last stage for temporary groups. Reasons that promote effective teamwork development The factors that promote effective teamwork are that the organizations provide team based structures to enhance the productivity (West 2012). The effective team work characteristics are: Tailored to the organization: Every organization needs a tailored approach to customized the culture and align it with the strategies in business as it is different. Flexible: The off the shelf approach can be utilized in a variety of models and approaches and integrate it with the existing development and training efforts. Practical and relevant: To work with the team members it is important to keep everything simple so that it can be implemented immediately in real life situation. Competency-based: To distinguish between the high competency and average the training of the team members and leaders should be conducted and if necessary a competency model for team can be developed . Customer focused: It is important to take customer feedback and implement it as far as possible; the feedback should be both internal and external (French and Rayner 2013). Transfer of technology: The dependence on any consultancy is not good so the companies which have done most of the works themselves have shown more profit. Evaluation of the impact of technology on team functioning The technological effect is huge in team functioning as it manifests the promotion of technology through team functioning. Over the last few decades new technology has been injected in the workplace at an increasing rate (Bardhan 2013). The focus will be on information technology, its implementations, its pitfalls and future. Information technology New developments in IT has led to a mobile work place. Due to the advancement of technology an individual can take his office anywhere he wants on the go as cellular phones allow to reach anywhere. New technology has opened the door for employees who want to move away from traditional working. Implementations: The implementation of technology is in every company as it is gaining popularity as new technologies has given business access (Lazaroiu 2015). As technology has become an important part in every ones life new technologies has been in the rise and this has prospered the implementation of information technology. Pitfalls It is the considerations for the areas of concern in technology implementation. The prime concern is about security as the use of technology and its advancement brings securities threats (Cummings and Worley 2014). The security of physical devices is a concern and the access to unauthorized data access is also an issue in many organizations. Conclusion From analyzing all the facts, it can be concluded that understanding the relationship between organizational structure and culture is necessary as it manifests an organization. The Understanding of different approaches to management and leadership should be made so that an organization keeps command of its employees. The understanding of ways of using motivational theories in organization evaluates the overall performance of every individual. The understanding of mechanisms for developing effective teamwork in organizations helps in the better performance of the organization. All these factors are included in the success rate of any organization, as these constitute the building blocks of success. References Bardhan, I., Krishnan, V.V. and Lin, S., 2013. Team dispersion, information technology, and project performance.Production and Operations Management,22(6), pp.1478-1493. Barrick, M.R., Mount, M.K. and Li, N., 2013. 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